Lane and Willemsen compiled economic data from aquaculture operators across EU member states to produce the first comprehensive estimate of biofouling costs to the European industry. Their methodology combined direct cost surveys — covering net cleaning, antifouling treatments, equipment replacement, and labour — with modelling of indirect losses from reduced stock growth rates, increased feed conversion ratios, and elevated mortality in heavily fouled pens.
The headline figure of approximately 260 million euros per year became the most widely cited benchmark in subsequent biofouling literature. The report disaggregated costs by production sector, showing that salmon net-pen operations bear the highest absolute expenditure while shellfish growers face the largest proportional burden relative to farm revenue. Regional variation was substantial, with Mediterranean farms spending up to three times more per tonne of output than Nordic operations due to year-round fouling pressure.
Farmers can use the biofouling cost calculator to benchmark their own expenditure against the figures established in this report. For a deeper look at how these costs break down in salmon farming specifically, see the true cost of net cleaning. The anti-fouling solutions comparison outlines which methods offer the strongest return on investment by region.