Yebra, Kiil, and Dam-Johansen traced the development of anti-fouling coating technology from the earliest copper-sheathed hulls through the highly effective but environmentally devastating tributyltin (TBT) self-polishing paints, their global ban under the IMO AFS Convention, and the subsequent transition to copper-based controlled-release systems and non-biocidal foul-release coatings. The review provided detailed technical analysis of how each coating type functions at the surface-water interface.
The authors conducted a rigorous performance comparison between biocidal coatings (copper acrylate, copper thiocyanate, zinc pyrithione boosters) and non-biocidal foul-release surfaces (fluoropolymers, silicone elastomers), evaluating efficacy, longevity, environmental fate, and regulatory compliance. They concluded that while copper-based systems still deliver superior short-term fouling prevention, silicone foul-release coatings represent the most promising path toward sustainable long-term anti-fouling, particularly as regulatory pressure on biocide discharge continues to tighten across European waters.
The regulatory trajectory described in this paper has continued to accelerate — see EU restrictions on anti-fouling chemicals for current developments. Farmers weighing coating options can use the solutions comparison tool to evaluate all available technologies, and the article on copper-free anti-fouling explores the latest non-toxic alternatives.